Responses of Indonesian Muslim Intellectuals to the Concept of Democracy (1966-93). By Masykuri Abdillah (edited by Rainer Carle and Peter Pink). Hamburg: Abera Verl, 1997. 304 pp., appendix, references, index. Reviewed by Ian Parker, Reed College.

This book explores the concept of democracy within the context of Islamic morality and ethics. Author Masykuri Abdillah explores democratic principles by comparing them with the theological imperatives of Islam.

He argues that democratic principles coincide with the Islamic ‘fundamentals’ of justice, mutual consultation and brotherhood (p. 54). His book surveys a range of perspectives by prominent Indonesian Muslim scholars on these issues. Recognizing the validity of this plurality of perspectives accords with the notion of ijtihad or individual judgement and interpretation of Islamic doctrine. Thus, while there is general consensus that certain principles of democratic thought are in accordance with Islamic law, other principles are subject to debate. For example, while many believe that mutual deliberation (shura) and the concept of majority rule are democratic principles that directly apply to Islamic law, some believe that other principles (such as procedural and social justice, liberty, and equality) are too broad under liberal democracy and would need to be modified to be consistent with Islamic principles. Abdillah seems to present a consensus of personal interpretations about the applicability of democratic ideals to Indonesia, but he also argues that these ideals can (and should) apply more broadly to state and society.

Abdillah begins his study with a historical background of Islam and the New Order. He argues that, though Islam entered Indonesia some time in the thirteenth century, it only became a dominant form of identity in response to Dutch hegemony. The period of Dutch colonialism ended with the beginning of World War II and the subsequent rule by the Japanese. With the development and politicization of Islam in the state after the war, Muslim intellectuals became involved in the interpretation of democratic ideals for the new state ideology. The first phase was the period of ‘Liberal Democracy’ (1950-58), followed by ‘Guided Democracy’ (1959-65) and most recently ‘Pancasila Democracy’ (1966-present ­ this book was published in 1997). Abdillah argues that the Pancasila philosophy of nationalism, humanity, popular sovereignty, social justice and faith in one God accords with the theological perspective presented in his study. He remarks that such theological acceptance of Pancasila (and democratic ideas more broadly) is based on the Qu’ranic teachings and historical practices in the period of Mushammad and Righteous Caliphs (al-khulafa ‘al-Rashidun).

Contained in this dissertation is the belief that the new generation of Muslim intellectuals will be able to reform the inconsistencies within the political system. There is the hope, on one hand, that democracy can be accepted as a cogent ideology that supports Islamic ethics, and, on the other hand, that Islam can be adapted to modern politics. One central aspect of this discussion is a distinction between ‘realistic’ democratic principles expressed in law, and the more ‘philosophical’ principles that do not consider the varieties of human intelligence and socio-cultural groups. He avoids the question: ‘Are all men truly created equal?’ Another problem is the secular nature of democracy. As Abdillah remarks, ‘Popular will under liberal democracy, which is secular in nature, can be fully implemented, whereas the popular will under Islam can be implemented only as long as it is not contrary to God’s orders’ (p. 78). Given this interpretation, it would be necessary to modify some democratic principles to fit with Islamic morality.

The general consensus among Indonesian Muslim intellectuals mentioned in this study is that democratic principles must coincide with Islamic law. For example, Abdillah remarks that whereas freedom in a liberal democracy is ‘the ability to act without restriction’, in an Islamic society freedom is defined as ‘the ability to exist’ (pp. 116-17). Laws would affect not only the public sphere but would necessary pertain to the domestic and private sphere as well. While this seems to infringe on personal rights, Abdillah also argues in favor of ethnic and religious pluralism and toleration of differences. Interestingly, he quotes a verse from the Qur’an (2:62) as evidence that Muslims, Christians and Jews are brethren under a similar God and thus are equals under heaven. This becomes a defense for greater tolerance among monotheists and other non-Muslim groups in Indonesia.

Abdillah argues that the various forms of responses by Indonesian Muslim intellectuals to the concept of democratization in the region are influenced by their individual perceptions of democracy, political ideologies, social positions and views of historical context. The responses are directed not only to political superstructures, but also to infrastructures and ‘fundamentalists’ that are against democratic ideals. In conclusion, Abdillah persuasively argues that democratic ideals have not yet been completely realized in Indonesia. While they exist on an institutional level (through bodies such as the MPR Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat and the DPR Dewan Perwakilan Rakat), even existing political structures need further reform. He contends that his correspondents essentially advocate democracy because such values are in accordance with Muslim values on society. As agents of change, they fulfil a religious duty by educating the Muslim population on the merits of democratic ideals.

(This review was uploaded to www.antarakita.net on September 26, 2003)